Trade-route bypass and the Ottoman naval dilemma

The Ottoman Empire was a geographic bridge linking Africa, Asia, and Europe, and it had long profited from north-south and east-west trade. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, British, and French maritime competition increasingly carried commerce around that bridge, reducing the empire's role as a lucrative intermediary. The new routes diverted spices, minerals, ideas, and other resources away from Ottoman middlemen. As the economy contracted, political leaders competed over a shrinking pool of resources instead of diversifying and investing. That failure also affected the condition of the Osmaniye-class ships and the difficulties surrounding their later rebuilding.