Holtzendorff's submarines sank six million gross registered tons in 1917, and the opening phase appeared dangerous to Britain. Germany hoped those losses would also prevent the rapid movement of American forces to Europe. It lacked enough submarines when an earlier campaign had its best chance, while British countermeasures arrived as German numbers improved. Although promoted to Grand Admiral in July 1918, Holtzendorff soon clashed with Supreme Army Command as the hoped-for result failed to appear. Convoys used escorts already under construction, causing sinkings to fall after the first shock had passed. Repeated campaigns also reduced the psychological effect of shock and horror, leaving fury and hatred in their place. Both the Risk Fleet and unrestricted submarine warfare depended too heavily on an opponent continuing to behave as expected: the enemy always gets a vote.
Chapter · 45:42-49:47
A campaign overtaken by adaptation
The campaign sank vast tonnage in 1917 but failed because convoying and escorts reduced losses before submarines could produce a decisive result.