Relatively small European states could still become global contenders and sustain imperial systems. Portugal, the Netherlands, and Sweden were neither as small nor as short-lived as a quick comparison might suggest. Their routes to power also changed over time, and each used a different balance of trade, organization, and territorial expansion. The comparison begins with shared problems of scale and survival before separating the commercial and territorial models.
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Three different models of minor empire
The opening frames Portugal, the Netherlands, and Sweden as powers whose routes to empire, sources of strength, and longevity differed sharply.