How Restoration gun crews prepared and aimed at sea

Gunners were expected to understand arithmetic, geometry, shot weights, barrel dimensions, and trajectories, yet a ship at sea denied them the stable instruments available ashore. Before action, crews laid out filled and empty cartridges, separated types of shot, prepared ropes, rammers, sponges, and water, and soaped the gun-carriage trucks. The gun captain then sighted along the piece while allowing for the motion of both ships and had to withdraw his foot before recoil trapped it. Anglo-Dutch War engagements often closed to musket-shot distances, making practical judgment at point-blank range more important than a theoretical maximum range.