Philip II, Parma, and a disconnected invasion plan

Philip II had exercised royal responsibility from adolescence during Charles V's absences. Some of his confidence may have reflected the religious advice and assumptions inherited from his father. Philip held strategic authority, while Parma retained day-to-day military and political autonomy in the Netherlands. Parma expected Madrid to fund his campaigns but pursued his own priorities in an active war zone. The Armada therefore had to find, embark, and escort an army controlled by another commander. Transport, timing, money, anchorages, and objectives all had to be coordinated across distance with slow communications, creating a weakness before weather or English gunfire entered the story.