Unscripted exercises and the cost of readiness

The Royal Navy may have been better prepared for the Pacific's unexpected style of warfare because it conducted frequent, relatively unscripted exercises. Forces received broad tasks such as escorting a convoy or fighting for sea control, then worked through the encounter as it developed. That practice depended on training and fuel budgets in the 1920s and 1930s. The US Navy received less generous funding from Congress for such activity, and Japan faced still tighter limits. Nagumo's preparation therefore needs to be judged against the opportunities his service could afford.