Illumination and smoke shaped Japanese visual gunnery

Without fire-control radar, the Japanese used flares, star shells, and reconnaissance aircraft to illuminate their targets. The American cruisers maneuvered to avoid illumination, but Japanese aircraft eventually exposed them. Three eight-inch shells struck Denver without detonating, and a shell hitting Spence at the waterline also failed to explode. As Japanese fire grew more accurate, American destroyers laid smoke and the cruisers maneuvered behind it. Smoke interfered with visual ranging even when gunfire could still be seen, because a dimmer target could appear farther away than it was.