Maritime restraint in the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation

Although the conflict is commonly remembered for jungle operations in Borneo, the maritime dimension was central to its conduct and legacy. Commonwealth ships generally observed a self-imposed twelve-mile limit and could use force only in self-defence or after an Indonesian attack, even though Britain formally disputed that maritime claim. Royal Navy passages through claimed waters required Foreign Office approval based on an assessment of likely Indonesian reaction. The transition from routine passage to the 1964 crisis shows how legal positions and operational restraint can become part of a naval campaign.