Barfleur: line tactics, wind shifts, and a day-long battle

The 1692 action took place during the Nine Years' War, with Edward Russell and Philips van Almonde holding a large Anglo-Dutch numerical advantage. James II had led Tourville to expect defections from English captains with Jacobite sympathies, but none occurred. Both sides divided their fleets into three squadrons and each squadron into divisions under flag officers, a command structure scaled to an Anglo-Dutch line of 82 ships. Although under orders to engage, Tourville tried to limit the fight by refusing his van and reinforcing the centre so the fleet could avoid being enveloped too quickly. A change in wind let Cloudesley Shovell break the French line and the Dutch extend around the van, showing that line-breaking long predated Nelson. Calm, fog, tides, and a fireship attack then prolonged the action, and both battle lines remained afloat before the French withdrawal began.