Axis battleship gunnery failures had different national causes

Why were Axis battleships so ineffective in gun battles on average?

Italy suffered from ammunition quality control, Germany from turret problems, and Japan had too little capital-ship gun combat for the same kind of assessment.

For Italy, inconsistent ammunition quality control is the main problem identified. For Germany, turret design was a recurring source of trouble, although other navies also suffered similar failures. Japan presents a different problem because its capital ships fought relatively few gun actions from which to judge an average. The comparison shows why a single Axis-wide explanation would hide important differences in equipment and combat opportunity.