The 1890 amphibious exercise and the problem of realistic opposition

In the 1890 maneuvers, Sfax attacked alongside Marengo, Océan, Suffren, and the torpedo cruiser Épervier. The Northern Squadron tried to defeat coastal ships and armored gunboats representing a German defense before conducting a landing. The attack failed, but the scenario imposed artificial disadvantages and left the supposed German force with French characteristics. A more credible simulation could have assigned German armor and machinery reliability through umpire rules, even when exact German hulls were unavailable. The defenders might still have won, though probably less easily. An exercise can inform strategy only when the opposition receives credible capabilities.